Pediatric airway
— what's different.

Steven McGaughey, MD MCI · OHSU Department of Emergency Medicine, Pediatric EM

A pediatric airway is not a small adult airway. Anatomy changes which blade and which view you should expect on attempt #1; physiology changes how much time you have to get there.

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Part 1 · Anatomy

Use the anatomy, not the age.

Six landmarks differ between children and adults. Each changes a single concrete decision — blade choice, expected view, depth, head position.

  1. Tongue
    Larger relative to oral cavity. Crowds the view. Externally compressed jaw-thrust and OPA earlier than you would in adults.
  2. Epiglottis
    Floppy, U-shaped, covers the cords. Use a Miller blade in < 2 yr — lift the epiglottis directly rather than rocking it forward off the vallecula.
  3. Vocal cords
    Slanted, lower in front.
  4. Larynx
    Anterior and superior — C3–C4 in infants vs C5–C6 in adults. Expect the cords to appear earlier than they do in adults; BURP only if needed.
  5. Cricoid
    Functionally narrowest part of the upper airway in young children. Use cuffed ETTs as default (Disma 2024) and pick a size that passes without resistance — don't force.
  6. Trachea
    Short — ~4 cm in a neonate, ~6 cm at age 1. Right mainstem is easy. Confirm depth at the lip, then bilateral breath sounds.
Illustrated cross-sectional comparison of adult vs pediatric upper airway showing relative sizing of tongue, larynx position, and epiglottis. Illustrated — sizing & structure
Side-by-side videolaryngoscope view of an adult and a pediatric glottis, showing the floppier U-shaped epiglottis and more anterior cords in the child. VL view — what you'll see
Adult vs pediatric airway, two ways. Left: schematic of relative sizing — larger tongue, more cephalad/anterior larynx, narrower subglottis. Right: the videolaryngoscope view — floppy U-shaped epiglottis covering the cords, slanted-and-anterior cords. Sources: illustrated comparison, public clinical illustration; VL view, openanesthesia.org.
Part 2 · Physiology

Why peds crashes faster.

Four facts that make every other decision time-critical. They are why pre-oxygenation is non-negotiable, why bradycardia is the warning shot, and why the first attempt has to be the best.

  1. O₂ reserve is seconds, not minutes. Oxygen reserve is measured in seconds, not minutes. Infants have higher oxygen consumption per kg and a smaller FRC than adults, so they desaturate faster during apnea. Preoxygenation is essential, apneic oxygenation can help during laryngoscopy, and first-pass optimization matters.
  2. Hypoxia → bradycardia, not tachycardia. Hypoxia in infants and young children often causes bradycardia rather than tachycardia. Compared with adults, pediatric patients are more prone to hypoxia-related bradycardia, which is an ominous sign of impending collapse and should prompt immediate oxygenation and ventilation.
  3. Cardiac output is rate-dependent. Compared with adults, infants and young children have limited ability to increase stroke volume, so they are more dependent on heart rate to maintain cardiac output. In hypoxia, bradycardia can quickly reduce cardiac output, which lowers cerebral and coronary perfusion and further worsens oxygen delivery.
  4. Compliant chest, diaphragm-driven ventilation. Infants have a more compliant chest wall and are more dependent on diaphragmatic breathing, so they fatigue faster under increased work of breathing. During bag-mask ventilation, excessive pressure can cause gastric insufflation, which worsens ventilation and limits chest rise. Squeeze gently and titrate to visible chest rise.
⚠ The pediatric spiral

Hypoxia → bradycardia → falling cardiac output → worse perfusion → worse hypoxia.

The window from "looks borderline" to arrest is shorter than the window you trained on in adults. Pre-oxygenate, optimize first attempt, and have BVM/LMA ready to rescue from above before you start.

Part 3 · The first attempt

Get the view.

Each subsequent look in a hypoxic child is more dangerous than the last. The first attempt should be the planned one — best operator, best blade, best position.

Position Sniffing position with the ear at the sternal notch.
In infants the large occiput already provides flexion — extend the neck slightly and place a roll under the shoulders, not the head.
Pre-O₂ Aggressive pre-oxygenation. Gentle BMV is acceptable in low-FRC children.
Passive 100% O₂ alone may not adequately fill alveoli in small kids; gentle BMV during preoxygenation provides PEEP-like recruitment without high airway pressures. Apneic O₂ via NC during the attempt buys the seconds you need from #1.
Operator Operator-of-choice on attempt #1.
Plan the change before attempt #2 — different operator, blade, head position, or device. Write it on the board if you need to.
Rescue BVM / LMA from above by a second provider, ready before induction.
Small face — mask seal is the failure mode. Default to two-person, two-thumb (CE→V) grip in any infant. The supraglottic airway is your bridge, not your last move; have it on the table.

Adjunct sizing — memo aid OPA: corner of mouth → angle of mandible. NPA: tip of nostril → tragus. Lubricate; avoid NPA in suspected basilar skull fracture. In an infant who can't be bagged, an NPA is often the difference between "can't BMV" and "can BMV" because young infants are obligate nasal breathers.

Adult in classic sniffing position with head elevated on a pillow. Adult — head elevated
School-age child (8 yr) in sniffing position with a small pad under the occiput. School-age — small pad under occiput
Infant in sniffing position with a roll under the shoulders, not the head, to compensate for a large occiput. Infant — roll under shoulders
Sniffing by age. The infant gets a generous shoulder roll, and a limited head rest — the large occiput is already flexing the neck.
OPA being sized along the side of the face from the corner of the mouth to the angle of the mandible. OPA: mouth → angle of mandible
NPA being sized along the side of the face from the tip of the nostril to the tragus. NPA: nostril → tragus
Adjunct sizing. Measure on the patient before insertion. An NPA in an infant who can't be bagged often converts the situation in seconds.
Part 4 · Sizing & equipment

Operational starting points.

Cross-check with Broselow under stress. Use cuffed ETTs as default in all ages including neonates (Disma 2024). Fit, training, and what's stocked matter more than the age label.

Age Wt (kg) ETT cuffed Depth (cm) Blade LMA / i-gel Bougie Needle gauge†
Neonate 3 3.0–3.5 9–10 Miller 0–1 1 6F 14–16G
6 mo 6 3.5 11 Miller 1 1.5 8F 14–16G
1 yr 10 4.0 12 Miller 1–1.5 1.5 10F 14–16G
2–3 yr 13 4.5 13–14 Mil 1.5 / Mac 22 10F 14–16G
5 yr 20 5.0 15 Mac 2 2 10F 14–16G
8 yr 25 5.5 17 Mac 2–3 2.5 10–14F 14G
>12 yr≥406.0+ 18–20 Mac 3–4 3 14F 14G
 † Needle gauge. Largest practical catheter your kit and anatomy support. 14G preferred when feasible; 16G acceptable; 18G acceptable if kit-limited or very small infant. Avoid 20G as default — flow resistance dominates oxygenation. Berger-Estilita 2021 endorses 14–18G; Stacey 2012 showed no significant success-rate difference 14G vs 18G in pediatric simulation.
Cuffed ETT = (age/4) + 3.5 Depth at lip = ETT × 3 Uncuffed ETT = (age/4) + 4  — cuffed preferred
Page 2 · When the first move fails

CICO reference — can't intubate, can't oxygenate

Decision pathway, fork by anatomy, oxygenation through the cannula, and the failure modes to watch for.
Sources

Where this comes from.

  1. Disma N, et al. Airway management in neonates and infants (ESAIC/BJA). Eur J Anaesthesiol 2024;41:3–23.
    doi:10.1097/EJA.0000000000001928
  2. Black AE, Flynn PER, et al. APA/DAS Paediatric Difficult Airway Guidelines. Paediatr Anaesth 2015;25:346–362.
    doi:10.1111/pan.12615
  3. Fiadjoe JE, et al. PeDI-C registry: pediatric difficult intubation outcomes. Lancet Respir Med 2016;4:37–48.
    doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(15)00508-1
  4. Humphreys S, et al. THRIVE in children (RCT). Br J Anaesth 2017;118:232–238.
    doi:10.1093/bja/aew401
  5. Doctor JR, et al. AIDAA 2025 — Paediatric unanticipated difficult airway. Indian J Anaesth 2025;69:1167–1186.
    doi:10.4103/ija.ija_1096_25
  6. Long E, et al. Endotracheal intubation in the pediatric emergency department. Paediatr Anaesth 2014;24:1204–1211.
  7. Mittiga MR, et al. A modern and practical review of RSI in pediatric emergencies. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med 2015;16:172–185.
  8. Maskinduction.com. Positioning infants and children for airway management.
    Visual reference for shoulder-roll and sniffing-position diagrams.